BLEAKHOUSE ROAD STATION - A HISTORY OF THE GLASTONBURY & SOUTH SOMERSET RAILWAY

For long before man settled the flat and marshy lands to the south of the Mendip Hills, the chill wind from the sea has whistled in across the lonely and remote Somerset Levels. This low lying region was gradually reclaimed from the salt waters of the Bristol Channel over the years by a hardy folk who had to toil endlessly to eke out a precarious living from the land. The long periods of quiet solitude were punctuated by few notable events; King Alfred is reputed to have burnt the cakes at Burrowbridge and during the English Civil War a major battle was fought out on it’s soil at Langport.

In between these moments in history, however, the landscape has slumbered on in peaceful obscurity. Flood defences slowly started to appear and the countryside gradually acquired a network of drainage channels or rhynes. Even these were not enough to keep the waters completely at bay and today they are still prone to being overwhelmed during heavy winter rains, turning the Levels into a patchwork pattern of inland seas and lakes, punctuated only by trees and hedgerows.

Communications remained primitive right up until the 1830s. Various drove roads served the district but even by 1817 there were no turnpike roads to serve the communities of the area. A hint of Industrial Revolution came with the opening of the Glastonbury Canal in 1833.

The coming of the railways 
The dawn of the Railway Age barely touched the Levels in the 1840s as the Bristol & Exeter Railway probed it’s way towards the west, skirting along the western edge of the district through Highbridge and Bridgwater. The broad gauge empire seemed intent only on reaching Devon and initially left the Levels to slumber on. Eventually in 1852 the Act of Parliament authorising the Somerset Central Railway received Royal Assent and this broad gauge railway opened between Highbridge and Glastonbury to much public celebration on 17th August 1854.

Extensions of the Somerset Central had opened to Burnham and Wells by 1859. By 1863 this minor local railway had been transformed into a significant through route linking the Bristol Channel and English Channel by virtue of it’s extension towards Bruton and eventual linking up with the Dorset Central Railway. By the time of the union with the Dorset Central the broad gauge across the Levels had been replaced with standard gauge. The railway map of the Somerset and Dorset was largely completed by the completion of the Bath Extension in 1874, which ironically rendered the former main line of the Somerset Central into the ‘branch’.

The Glastonbury & South Somerset Railway  

With the exception of the opening of the Bridgwater Railway from Edington Junction in 1890, little further happened until 1897, when a public meeting was called by local businessmen who believed there was a demand for a direct railway service between the cathedral city of Wells and the growing market town of Taunton. 

Early intentions were for the construction of a direct connection off the independent Bridgwater to Edington Junction railway with the Great Western Railway at Bridgwater. An initial approach was made to the GWR but they quickly declined on the grounds that the junction would be awkward and costly to operate and that Bridgwater station would require extending, the costs of which would have to be borne by the GWR alone.  

The promoters also ran into difficulties with the S&DJR themselves, in that the latter company felt that there was insufficient capacity over the single line sections between Glastonbury and Edington Junction, and that they too would have to bear the entire cost of doubling the line.  

Despite the most obvious choice of route now closed to them, the optimistic promoters looked unabashed at alternative routes for their railway and their thoughts turned to the developing peat industry on the Somerset Levels. Although the peat beds to the north of the Polden Hills was already well served by the S&DJR, the isolated areas to the south had no existing railway connections.  

 The independent G&SSR Company was formed with the intention of building a standard gauge branch line, linking Glastonbury with Taunton, the county town of Somerset. The Wells branch of the S&DJR would provide the link at the northern end. 

The surveyor and engineer Joshua Hogg was engaged by the company and a route was quickly mapped from a junction immediately to the west of the existing Glastonbury station, running in a south-westerly direction towards Taunton via the villages of Walton, Pedwell and Othery to a junction near the village of East Lyng with the GWR Taunton to Yeovil branch. Heavy engineering works would be required at the northern end to drive the route through the Polden Hills. 

The line was to be single with one passing place at Othery. Halts were planned for Walton, Pedwell and High Ham Road. Royal Assent to the Glastonbury and South Somerset Railway Act was given on 1st March 1899.  

There was perhaps a certain inevitability to the financial problems that beset the company during the early stages of construction. The cost of the earthworks to cut through the gap in the Polden Hills near Glastonbury increased beyond financial projections and work was stopped for nearly six months in late 1899 by the contractor Algernon Cuthbertson & Sons due to non-payment of accounts.  

Further problems were encountered to the south of the Poldens when the landowner Lord Arkwright changed his mind and refused to sell the company the necessary land needed to route the line via the village of Othery.

The company had no choice but to divert the line further to the east, where the landowner E. A. Blenkinsop was more co-operative, so much so that he sold his land for less than it’s market value in exchange for shares in the new company.

The diversion placed the company in something of a quandary, as the site for the passing station was now some 2 miles north-east of Othery. In recognition of Mr Blenkinsop’s support for the line, it was decided to name the new station after his residence Bleakhouse Farm. Even this was some distance from the railway, so the new station was to be named Bleakhouse Road.  

New Owners
Following further financial difficulties and another temporary suspension of construction work by the long suffering Mr Cuthbertson, the directors of the G&SSR found themselves facing the alternatives of bankruptcy or seeking support from one of the bigger railway companies in the area. Although the formation between Glastonbury and Bleakhouse Road was largely complete and a two-mile (but isolated) stretch of track laid, the line was totally unprepared to accept revenue earning traffic. 

Negotiations with the S&DJR commenced but initially attracted little interest from the larger company, due to the financial liability that would transfer along with the rather limited physical assets and what was thought would be low revenues. The S&DJR eventually offered a sum which fell significantly short of what was required to complete the line, and even this was on the condition that the G&SSR would find the rest. 

Faced with no realistic alternative yet still determined to see their line completed, the directors approached the GWR again.  

Following protracted negotiations a deal was eventually struck whereby the GWR would complete the southern half of the line from the junction with their Taunton to Yeovil branch as far as the intermediate station of Bleakhouse Road. The S&DJR undertook to complete the northern half of the line.

The new railway was to operate as a joint line with the intention of both companies taking their share of the profits.

As construction of the southern half of the line progressed, the GWR were also building their new main line cut-off from Castle Cary to Cogload Junction. It was decided that the junction with the G&SSR would now be more conveniently situated at Althelney rather than Lyng, although all passenger services would run via Durston and Lyng Halt.

The line was eventually completed in June 1901 and opened to passenger and goods traffic on 4th August, with civic celebrations in Glastonbury and Taunton.

Traffic never developed to the optimistic levels originally forecast by the local Victorian entrepreneurs and the line maintained a financially precarious but otherwise uneventful existence until the early years of nationalisation, when it became part of the Western Region as far as Glastonbury Junction. 

For an account of a journey along the Bleakhouse Road branch, click here.

 

The South Polden Light Railway 

In 1911 as a result of the opening of the new line, a standard gauge light railway was constructed across the southern peat moor. The South Polden Light Railway was a fully independent concern and was built by an assortment of local peat producers and farmers including the ever optimistic Mr Blenkinsop, with the intention of tapping into the growing peat market in the area. 

The SPLR ran from Bleakhouse Road across the levels south of the Polden Hills to a number of peak works near Westonzoyland and Burrowbridge. At the height of production during the 1920’s it in turn was fed by several narrow gauge tramways. An occasional passenger service ran from Bleakhouse Road to Burrowbridge between the wars, but fell victim to road competition in 1935. 
Goods traffic continued throughout the war years and beyond, aided in no small measure by the opening in 1938 of an Army Stores Depot at Burrowbridge (see below). Trains ran twice daily, with most services conveying some wagons for the Military, as well as peat traffic and local agricultural produce.  

Local inwards traffic typically consisted of empty box vans inwards for loading at the various peat works, domestic coal for local usage and various miscellaneous items as required. 

Outwards traffic would consist of box vans loaded with peat produces, empty coal wagons and agricultural produce. 

With the exception of the peat and the requirements of the military, most other traffic had disappeared by the early 1950s. The peat works at Burrowbridge and Sedge Vole closed in 1952 and 1954 respectively, leaving just that at Westonzoyland still functioning and supplying a source of revenue to the light railway proper, although this together with the works of the Bleak Moor Peat & Sedge Company at Bleakhouse Road itself remained operational right up to the final closure of the S&D and the SPLR in March 1966. 

Burrowbridge Military Stores Depot had closed in 1965 but both the remaining peat works struggled on into the 1970s, albeit now served by road, until they both succumbed in 1978. Very little remains of either now, as the land has been returned to agricultural use. 

Burrowbridge Military Stores Depot 

The British Army established a Military Stores depot adjacent to the South Polden Light Railway station at Burrowbridge in April 1938. With the threat of war with Germany now looming, this was intended to be part of the gradual build up of military preparedness. In the event, the military authorities could not have chosen a more inconveniently located site as regards rail access, but in view of the sensitivities of the time and the relatively remote location, it was considered ideal. 

The coming of the Stores Depot saw a significant increase in traffic over the light railway, so much so that some of the original flat bottomed sections were re-laid with heavier duty bullhead track.

Business was brisk throughout the war years, with a steady stream of additional goods trains conveying military traffic, both inward and outwards. Trains were typically hauled as far as Bleakhouse Road by one of Templecombe’s 7Fs, where SPLR motive power took over. Trains were frequently double-headed by the two SPLR 0-4-0STs, although the increase in use required of these old workhorses meant that one of them was often out of traffic for repairs. In the end, the light railway was allocated an Austerity tank in 1944, to assist with the run-up to the D-Day landings, when traffic over the line reached its peak. Passenger trains for military personnel were also occasionally run, although normally limited to two ‘main line’ coaches hauled by one of the saddle tanks. These used the original passenger station at Burrowbridge.  

In the event, the Austerity tank was never sent back and was bought from the Government by the SPLR for a knock-down price at the end of the war. It remained active on the Light Railway right up until closure.

The SPLR itself was not nationalised in 1948 and thus never became part of the British Railways system. In 1946, after nearly succumbing to bankruptcy, it was bought by the Association of South Polden Peat Producers, who managed to raise just sufficient capital to enable it to continue in operation.

Bolstered by the peat and military traffic, the light railway managed to keep going until the final closure of the S&D in March 1966.
Site of Ham Lane level crossing in November 1998. The crossing keeper's cottage has long since been demolished, neither is there any trace of the narrow gauge peat tramway which also used to cross the lane a few yards behind the author's car.

Nationalisation and Decline

The ‘main line’ between Athelney and Glastonbury slumbered on during the inter-war years, being financially propped up by it’s parent companies. Passenger traffic never developed to the levels originally anticipated and soon settled down to seven daily return trips between Taunton and Wells. In line with the agreement drawn up between the S&DJR and GWR in 1899, all trains were worked through to Taunton by S&D motive power. In turn, the GWR maintained the permanent way between Glastonbury Junction and Athelney.

Nationalisation followed in 1948, with the whole line from a point just south of the junction at Glastonbury passing to the Western Region of British Railways. The W.R. was quick to see the hopeless financial case for keeping the whole line open and the section south from Bleakhouse Road to Athelney was closed to passengers in January 1951 and to freight four months later.

This defunct southern section was dismantled shortly after final closure and the remaining line north to Glastonbury transferred to the Southern Region, at which point it effectively became another ‘twig’ off the Evercreech Junction to Burnham branch of the S&D. 

Ham Lane crossing in the 1950s (Photo courtesy of M. Welch Collection)

Against all the odds the branch to Bleakhouse Road remained open to passenger and freight traffic until the final closure of the S&D in March 1966. The passenger service remained at a constant 7 return passenger trips each weekday from Glastonbury. There was no service on winter Sundays, but two return trips ran during the Summer timetable. The branch passenger workings shared stock diagrams with the Highbridge branch. The branch passenger train was always stabled at Glastonbury overnight. There were no loco servicing facilities at Bleakhouse Road except for a water column.

The main reason for the line’s survival was the transfer of peat and military traffic from the light railway to the ‘main line’ at Bleakhouse Road and sundry wagonload traffic for the surrounding agricultural district.

By 1964 traffic on the light railway was restricted to a daily trip to the Eclipse Peat Works near Westonzoyland and transfer traffic to and from the Bleak Moor Peat & Sedge Company’s works at Bleakhouse Road. Military traffic ran as required but had been much reduced following a ‘review’ of Army stores requirements in 1963.  

The peat works in the 1950s (Photo courtesy M. Welch Collection)

All wagonload traffic except for domestic coal ceased to be handled at Bleakhouse Road (BR) Goods Yard from 8th May 1965 and the passenger service was reduced to five return services a day, with no services leaving Glastonbury after 6.04pm. The remaining summer Sunday passenger service was withdrawn at the same time. 

The final service trains ran on Friday 5th March 1966, with just one return ‘special’ traversing the branch from Glastonbury on Saturday 6th. This consisted of 5 bogie coaches and was double-headed by Ivatt tank engines 41283 and 41296. This train was far too long to run round at Bleakhouse Road, so on arrival at the home signal, locomotive 41283 was detached and ran onto the connecting spur to the light railway. The main train then continued into the station, whereupon No. 41283 was re-attached to the Glastonbury end. The return trip had then been specially authorized to return in this formation. The Ivatts were re-joined at Glastonbury and continued the railtour in conventional double-headed mode to Highbridge. 

Once the return special had cleared the single line section at Glastonbury South Junction, signalman Fred Dando acknowledged the 2-1 ‘Train out of Section’ bell signal and the last section of the Glastonbury & South Somerset Railway was finally laid to rest. 

The track and station mouldered on for a further 12 months until the track lifting contractors started to dismantle the branch in April 1967. Most of the track was removed using road cranes and lorries, although a ‘Hymek’ appeared with a couple of empty vans in June 1966 to remove station furniture and other items from Bleakhouse Road station. 

It is rumoured that a further trip was made over the branch in November 1966 to enable the scrap contractor to survey the line. It is believed that a class 63XX diesel may have been used on this occasion, although it has not been possible to verify this story. 

The light railway closed at the same time as the S&D, although the narrow gauge tramway feeding the Bleak Moor peat works survived into the early 1970’s, when the peat works itself closed. 

Following track lifting, the site of Bleakhouse Road station was sold back to a local farmer and has now largely been returned to agriculture. Most people would now find it hard to believe that a railway had ever existed there. Much of the formation between Althelney and Glastonbury is still discernible, however, and now forms farm tracks in some locations. 

For an account of a journey along the Bleakhouse Road branch, click here.

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Building the model

‘Engine Wood’ has provided me with a huge amount of enjoyment and interest over the years and seems to have been quite popular at exhibitions. The layout has by no means had it’s day but it is a very awkward layout to transport. It was not really designed to be portable in the ‘let’s bung it in the car and go home in 5 minutes’ sense of the word. It can only function efficiently with three operators and needs a similar number of people to pack it up if we are all to get home at a sensible hour.

Bleakhouse Road was originally conceived as just one module in a larger communal layout that was to have been built by three of us. Simon had already built a small baseboard and together we began to lay some 16.5mm gauge ‘light railway’ track using Code 40 rail and ‘distressed’ copper clad sleepers. I must say that it began to look rather good and optimism was in the air. Unfortunately Simon’s other commitments meant that he was unable to proceed much further and it was eventually dismantled.

In the meantime, the track plan and the planned size of my module kept growing until the proposed layout had expanded to the size of 8 feet in length. Despite the fact that the communal layout was not now going to be built, I decided to go ahead with the layout anyway. I have always liked the Somerset Levels and decided that the next layout would have a 'Highbridge Branch' theme.

 

Baseboards

I wanted Bleakhouse Road to be much more portable than Engine Wood, as transport to and from exhibitions would be a key consideration. It needed to be capable of being set up and dismantled by one person in less time than the two hours normally required for Engine Wood.

The eight feet of scenic section was divided into two boards measuring 4 feet by 22 inches. My local timber merchant kindly cut a sheet of 4mm birch ply into 4 inch strips, from which the main structure of the baseboards would be fabricated.

The outer framework and internal spacers were made up using two strips of birch ply laminated together with smaller pieces of 4mm ply, leaving a 4mm air gap in between. This made for a strong but relatively light-weight framework.

‘H’ section legs were made up from 1 x 1 pine and attached at the outer ends of the two baseboard units using through bolts which enabled the leg unit to swing up and clip into the underside of the boards for transport. For a neat and clean fit it was necessary to remove a small square 1 inch section at each end of the internal board spacers. Small ‘cupboard door’ type clips were fixed on the underside of each board and it’s corresponding set of legs, which held the legs in the folded position for transport. 

Cross braces were made up to keep the legs at 90 degrees to the baseboards when all was set up; these are located using small brass hinges with the central pin removed and replaced by a replacement ‘L’-shaped pin for ease of use. 

A pine trestle was then made up to support one of the baseboard sections and the opposite end to the folding legs and thus create a self-standing unit, to which the remaining boards could be attached. 

Correct alignment between the two baseboards would be essential for good running, especially as four lines of railway would have to cross the join. Primary alignment is achieved by lining up two large brass hinges mounted on the outside of either side of the main boards, though which a replacement ‘L’ section pin of matching diameter is pushed. Three further alignment pins were turned up from brass rod by Brian Clarke with an external diameter to match the internal dimensions of some brass tube firmly glued with epoxy into the ends of both boards and set up to match each other when the boards are joined. Finally, structural strength is guaranteed by the use of two bolts with wing nuts along the same axis. 

The fiddle yard board was borrowed from Engine Wood and is connected to one of the new baseboards using bolts with wing nuts. A short ‘floating’ section of track between the scenic part of the layout and the fiddle yard track removes the need to ensure exact vertical alignment every time. 

The new boards were constructed on the ‘open frame’ principle, so the track bed parts were cut out of more birch ply and glued and screwed into position. The main track level was set 4.5 cm above the top of the baseboard framework. This was to allow the difference in height between the track and the adjacent rhyne or drainage canal. 

The trackbeds of the two goods sidings and the peak works private siding were set slightly lower than the datum of the main line and light railway, to provide visual interest and also ensure that wagons were not tempted to run back out onto the running lines! 

By using one of the fiddle yard boards from Engine Wood I ensured that Bleakhouse Road would be displayed at the same preferred operating height of 3’ 6”. It also meant that, were I were to totally lose control of my sanity, the two layouts could be exhibited together but fortunately no exhibition organiser has yet been brave enough to suggest it! 

Finally, holes were drilled on the operator’s side of the boards to take the wooden cradle which holds the Gaugemaster control unit. Metal brackets were also attached upon which the control panel rests. 

 

Electrics 

With all track laid it is time to wire the layout up, incorporating any necessary rail gaps for electrical isolation purposes etc. Rail gaps are easily done with the track in situ using a thin cutting disc in a 12v mini drill (as long as the drill is running ‘true’ with no slop in the bearings which may cause the cutting disc to stray). Always wear eye protection when using a mini-disc cutter. 

The operation of Engine Wood at exhibitions highlighted the need to keep something moving most of the time. For ‘Bleakhouse Road’, I adopted a slightly different principle to the ‘one engine in steam’ system on ‘Engine Wood’ and wired the layout up into four different electrical sections – a) main line, b) run round loop and goods yard, c) connecting line to light railway and light railway siding and d) rest of light railway and peat works siding. Each section is colour coded on the control panel and a double pole, double throw switch allows the operator to keep the section(s) concerned isolated or connected to one of two control units. Each section also has a number of isolating switches for further operational flexibility. I have since been told that this constitutes a form of ‘cab control’. A fifth section was added to the control panel when the narrow gauge (009) peat works tramway was completed. 

It is, therefore, possible to run two trains at the same time (but not recommended if you are likely to be distracted by conversations or drinking tea). 

The points are operated by Seep point motors, mounted under the baseboards. It is important to allow the solenoid (in the self-latching/self-switching type of Seep motors) enough travel to ensure that the electrical switching is achieved each and every time. This can be done by mounting the point motor directly underneath the tie bar but distancing it from the underside of the tie bar by mounting it onto 1 x 1 battens. This will allow some flexibility of movement with the steel operating rod of the point motor, which is located into a small hole in the tie bar. Alternatively, the point motor could be mounted away from the tie bar and connected by brass ridding with an omega loop incorporated in the run. 

The running signals are also operated by Seep point motors. A special bracket is made up of ‘L’ section aluminium angle upon which the point motor is mounted; a slot having been cut out for the operating rod of the point motor. A system of cranks connects the operating rod with the down rod of the signal. This system can either be used for permanently-installed signals or can be modified for removable ones. Despite the relatively rapid action of the point motors, I have achieved some ‘bounce!’ Brassmasters have now introduced a new signal operating mechanism with a built-in ‘bounce’ and I might try these in future. 

The control panel is made up with a wooden frame and a styrene sheet fascia. A diagram of the layout was painted onto the fascia into which the various switches and push buttons were set. Multi-pin connectors are used between the control panel and the layout and between the two main baseboards. 

When the wiring was completed and the layout connected to the controller for the first time, I test-ran a couple of locos. I never fail to be amazed that my Heath Robinson-ish wiring almost always seems to work first time! Being an accredited simpleton as far as electrics go, the best advice I can offer is to take your time and methodically wire one section up at a time, testing for electrical continuity and short circuits as you go. It really is worth taking a bit longer on this part to ensure all works well later when the scenery is done! I check for electrical integrity using a simple torch battery wired to a 1.5v battery; if it lights up, that means there is an electrical connection there! If there is meant to be one, fine, if not – you have a short circuit so you have to look for it and sort it out. 

I would like to give due credit for the assistance offered by my friend, the late Pete Lindsay of the Exeter Model Shop in helping to sort out a sensible wiring arrangement for this layout. 

 

Buildings and signals

The buildings on ‘Bleakhouse Road’ are a mixture of kits and scratchbuilt. The main structures are: 

Main station buildings

Scratchbuilt

Signalbox

Modified Ratio kit with replacement etched window frames, full interior detail and scratchbuilt stone base

Provender store

Modified Ratio kit

Peat works offices

Modified Wills kit

Peat works shed

Scratchbuilt

Crossing Keepers cottage

Scratchbuilt

Water tower

Townstreet Models kit (plastercast)

Both running signals are built from Model Signal Engineering (M.S.E.) components and are operated electrically from the control panel using Seep point motors. The tall co-acting platform starting signal is due to be replaced by a lower bracketed signal. A conventional straight posted signal is not feasible at this location due to the fact that it would be hidden from the driver’s view by the signalbox. 

Both level crossings feature working gates, which are operated by brass push rods underneath the baseboards. The gates are modified M.S.E; those at the Ham Lane end are almost totally scratchbuilt around an M.S.E. framework to represent those typically found on the S&D ‘branch’.

Information on scenic techniques, grass and trees can be found by clicking here.

Operations 

The B.R. passenger operation was very basic after the closure of the section to Athelney. The train engine would arrive, uncouple from the stock and draw forward to take on water. It would then run round and await departure time. Occasionally, the parcels van would be detached and stabled in the siding behind the station (actually on Light Railway property!) or another parcels van attached. 

Freight traffic tended to take the form of three distinct flows, although most trains contained a mix of traffic. The main flow consisted of empty box vans inwards for distribution along the South Polden Light Railway, including the peat works at Bleakhouse Road itself. When loaded with bagged peat and other ‘garden products’, they formed the main outward freight flow. In addition to this was the military traffic. Whilst this often consisted of secured box vans containing military stores, other items of military hardware were conveyed from time to time. These could range from armoured cars or other vehicles on lowmacs, to earth moving equipment and even field guns! The level of military traffic fell off considerably towards the end.

That just left the ordinary goods traffic for the district. This consisted of a few loaded coal wagons per week inwards, plus box vans with supplies for the surrounding area. Occasionally agricultural machinery was brought in or taken out on flat wagons. 

In the early 1960’s the local stately home Greinton Hall held an annual open day and steam rally. This is sometimes represented at exhibitions by the transport of a narrow gauge steam loco on a ‘lowmac’ wagon to Bleakhouse Road goods yard, for onwards transfer to the rally on a lorry. Facilities at Greinton & Pedwell Halt were inadequate for dealing with this traffic and it normally came through to Bleakhouse Road. 

In 1961 the Somerset Railway Circle ran the ‘Somerset Circular Wanderer’ railtour with the preserved ex-GWR 2-6-2T No. 4406. This ran from Taunton to Templecombe (via Langport West and Yeovil Junction) and then onwards to Highbridge via Evercreech Junction and with a return trip down the branch from Glastonbury to Bleakhouse Road and back. This railtour is also sometimes depicted on Bleakhouse Road at exhibitions. 

Some sections of the above text previously appeared in the article in Railway Modeller in June 2002. My thanks to Peco Publications & Publicity for permitting the use of this text here.

 

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BLEAKHOUSE ROAD GALLERY

Site of Bleakhouse Road station in 1998, to left of rhyne (Photo - Author)

Some of the photos in the Gallery section are courtesy of Peco.

Please note that all written and photographic material on this website is the intellectual property of and copyright Tim Maddocks 2005, unless otherwise credited.

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